PART –A: DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES
Unit-1: Introduction...................................1
1.1. Definition, Scope and significance of Developmental biology
1.2. Programme of Development
1.3. Ontogenic development- a) Embryogenesis; b) Blastogenesis
1.4. Concept/ theories of embryology
1.5. Branches of embryology. Important Questions.

Unit-2: Gametogenesis......................................17
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Primordial germ cells and its origin
2.3 Spermatogenesis – a) Formation of spermatid; b) Spermiogenesis
2.4 Oogenesis- a) Phases of Oogenesis; b) Hormonal regulation of Oogenesis
2.5 Comparison of spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
2.6 Significance of gametogenesis. Important Questions.

Unit-3: Fertilization and Parthenogenesis.........................29
A) Fertilization
3.1 Definition
3.2 Site of Fertilization- a) External fertilization; b) Internal fertilization
3.3 Mechanism of fertilization
3.4 Activation and its theories
3.5 Monospermy and Polyspermy and Significance of fertilization
B) Parthenogenesis
3.6 Definition
3.7 Types of parthenogenesis – a) Natural, b) Artificial
3.8 Significance of parthenogenesis. Important Questions.

Unit-4: Cleavage and Blastulation...............................50
4.1 Definition and characteristics of cleavage
4.2 Planes of cleavage
4.3 Pattern of cleavage
4.4 Determinate and indeterminate cleavage
4.5 Rate of cleavage
4.6 Factors affecting cleavage and adhesion of blastomeres
4.7 Types of cleavage
4.8 Molecular (chemical) changes during cleavage
4.9 Laws of cleavage
4.10 Morula and Blastula
4.11 Morulation and Blastulation
4.12 Significance of cleavage, morulation and blastulation. Important Questions.

Unit-5: Fate maps, Gastrulation and Germ Layers............71
A. Fate Maps
5.1 Definition and Methods of fate map construction
5.2 Fate maps of Chordates
B. Gastrulation
5.3 Definition and Characteristics of gastrulation
5.4 Morphogenetic movements
5.5 Significance of gastrulation
5.6 Metabolism during gastrulation
C. Germ layers
5.7 Definition and Types of germ layers
5.8 Tubulation. Important Questions.

Unit-6: Development of Frog................................92
6.1 Why study frog’s embryology? Development in Metazoa.
6.2 Reproductive systems in frog: a) Male reproductive system and b) female reproductive system.
6.3 Copulation and fertilization
6.4 Early embryonic development in frog
A) Zygote formation; B) Stages of embryonic development;
a) Early cleavage; b) Morula stage; c) Blastula stage; d) Gastrula stages; e) Stages of three primary germ layers.
6.5 Post-gastrular stages and organogeny; a) formation of notochord; b) Formation of neural tube (neurulation); c) Derivatives of mesoderm; d) Development of other organs.
6.6 Formation of tadpole larva
6.7 Late embryonic or larval developments in frog – Growth and changes in tadpole; 1) Early life of tadpole; 2) External gill stage of tadpole; 3) Internal gill stage of tadpole.
6.8 Metamorphosis of the tadpole; a) Changes in external morphology; b) Changes in internal morphology; c) changes in habitat and habits. Important Questions.

Unit-7: Early Development of Chick.................................119
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Gonads and gametes - The Sperm and Egg (Ova)
7.3 Copulation, Ovulation, Maturation and Fertilization
7.4 Cleavage and Blastoderm
7.5 Blastulation and Presumptive areas
7.6 Gastrulation and Incubation
7.7 Primitive Streak stage (Mesoderm formation) and Disappearance of the primitive streak
7.8 The Coelom, notogenesis, Neurogenesis and Neurulation
7.9 Development of Chick according to hours of incubation: a) First day of incubation (4 pairs of somites); b) 48 hours chick embryo; c) 72 hours chick embryo.
7.10 Extra-embryonic area and extra-embryonic (foetal) membranes- Development and functions. Important Questions.

Unit-8: Early development of Rabbit................................147
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Oviparity, ovo-viviparity and viviparity
8.3. Gonads, Gametes and ovulation.
8.4. Fertilization, zygote formation and early embryonic development
8.5. Implantation and Post- gastrular development
8.6. Extra-embryonic membranes
8.7. Comparison of foetal membranes of chick and rabbit. Important Questions.

Unit-9: Placentation in Mammals..............................160
9.1 Introduction
9.2 I) Implantation of embryo; II) Hormonal control of implantation
9.3 Classification of placenta
A) Types according to extra-embryonic membranes involved OR Modes of origin; B) Types according to shape and distribution of villi; C) Histological types.
9.4 Physiology (Functions) of placenta
9.5 Placenta and diseases. Important Questions.

Unit-10: Regeneration in Animals and Teratology...........172
10.1 Regeneration – Introduction
10.2 Types of regeneration
10.3 Regeneration in invertebrates
10.4 Regeneration in vertebrates
10.5 Mechanism of regeneration
10.6 Physiological processes in regeneration
10.7 Inductive stimulus and suppression of regeneration
10.8 Factors influencing regeneration
10.9 Theories of regeneration
10.10 Teratology- Introduction
10.11 Causes and examples of teratology
10.12 Principles of teratology. Important Questions.

PART-B: COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF CHORDATES
Unit-1: Integuments and its Derivatives.....................197
1.1 Integument (Skin)- Definition and functions
1.2 Derivatives of integument and epidermal glands
1.3 Epidermal scales and scutes
1.4 Dermal scales and scutes
1.5 Digital cornifications
1.6 Horns, feathers and hairs
1.7 Integument in different classes of chordates. Important Questions.

Unit-2: Endoskeleton in Vertebrates.........................216
2.1 Types and functions of endoskeleton
2.2 Subdivision of vertebrate endoskeleton and skull
2.3 Morphogenesis (History of development) of skull
2.4 Skull in different classes of vertebrate
2.5 Suspensoria or jaw suspensions
2.6 Vertebral column- a) Notochord; b) Vertebrae and its basic structure; c) Types of processes; d) Types of centra and vertebrae. Important Questions.

Unit-3: Digestive System in Vertebrates.....................230
3.1 Embryonic digestive tract
3.2 Alimentary canal- Histology and parts of alimentary canal
3.3 Digestive glands. Important Questions.

Unit-4: Respiratory System in Vertebrates.............247
4.1 Respiratory organs – Gills and Lungs and ducts.
4.2 Accessory respiratory organs. Important Questions.

Unit-5: Circulatory System in Vertebrates................258
5.1 Parts of circulatory system
5.2 Evolution of heart in vertebrates
5.3 Modification of aortic arches in vertebrates
5.4 Venous systems in vertebrates and its significance. Important Questions.

Unit-6: Urinogenital System in Vertebrates....................275
6.1 Kidneys and ducts
6.2 Urinary bladders
6.3 Gonads and their ducts. Important Questions.

Unit-7: Nervous System in Vertebrates......................286
7.1 Division of nervous system
7.2 Anatomy of nervous system – a) Neuron and its structure; b) types of neurons and fibres; c) Nerves
7.3 Nature of nerve impulse
7.4 Development of Central nervous system
7.5 Comparative account of brain in vertebrates
7.6 Cranial nerves
7.7 Autonomic nervous system
7.8 Functions of nervous system. Important Questions.

Unit-8: Receptor Organs in Vertebrates........................303
8.1 Sense organs and its classifications
8.2 Olfactory organ in vertebrates
8.3 Gustatory organs in vertebrates
8.4 Photoreceptor or eyes
8.5 Statoacoustic organ or ears. Important Questions.

Unit-9: Endocrine System in Vertebrates.......................312
9.1 Glands – Exocrine and endocrine
9.2 Hormones - Definition, chemical nature and properties, functions, classification and mechanism of action
9.3 Endocrine glands in different vertebrates
9.4 Pheromones- types and functions. Important Questions.